Highlights & Basics
- Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) typically presents with dyspnea and hypoxemia, which progress to acute respiratory failure.
- Common causes are pneumonia, sepsis, aspiration, and severe trauma.
- Mortality is between 30% and 50%.
- Low tidal volume, plateau-pressure-limited mechanical ventilation is the primary treatment that has been shown to reduce mortality. In severe ARDS, neuromuscular blockade and prone positioning may improve clinical outcomes.
- Complications include pneumothorax, ventilator-associated pneumonia, multiple organ failure, and pulmonary fibrosis with prolonged respiratory failure.
- This topic covers ARDS in patients over the age of 12 years.
Quick Reference
History & Exam
Key Factors
low oxygen saturation
acute respiratory failure
Other Factors
critically ill patient
dyspnea
increased respiratory rate
pulmonary crepitations
low lung compliance
fever, cough, pleuritic chest pain
frothy sputum
Diagnostics Tests
1st Tests to Order
chest x-ray
arterial blood gases
sputum culture
blood culture
urine culture
amylase and lipase
Other Tests to consider
brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)
echocardiogram
pulmonary artery catheterization
bronchoalveolar lavage or endotracheal aspirate
CT scan of the thorax
viral testing
open lung biopsy
Treatment Options
acute
all patients
oxygen and ventilation
prone positioning
intravenous fluids
antimicrobials + identification and treatment of source of infection
supportive care
rescue therapies
Definition
Vignette
Common Vignette
Epidemiology
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Diagnostic Approach
History
Examination
Investigation
Risk Factors
History & Exam
Tests
Differential Diagnosis
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- Residence in or travel to an area with local transmission of COVID-19, or close contact with a suspected or confirmed case in the 14 days prior to symptom onset.
- May be difficult to distinguish clinically from bacterial pneumonia. In addition to fever, cough, and dyspnea, other common presenting symptoms include sore throat, myalgia, fatigue, and altered sense of taste and/or smell.
- Patients with respiratory distress may have tachycardia, tachypnea, or cyanosis accompanying hypoxia.
- Many patients with COVID-19 pneumonia meet the criteria for ARDS, but there is uncertainty about whether severe COVID-19 pneumonia is a distinct phenotype of ARDS.[48]
Differentiating Tests
- Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction: positive for SARS-CoV-2 RNA.
- It is not possible to differentiate COVID-19 from other causes of pneumonia on chest imaging.
Acute heart failure
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- A history of cardiac disease, acute myocardial ischemia or infarction, or a known low ejection fraction suggests cardiogenic pulmonary edema, as do an S3 and elevated neck veins on physical examination.
Differentiating Tests
- Heart failure is suggested on chest x-ray by an enlarged cardiac silhouette, a vascular pedicle width >70 mm, central infiltrates, and Kerley B lines.
- Brain natriuretic peptide levels >500 picograms/mL also suggest cardiogenic edema.
- An echocardiogram and measurement of the pulmonary artery occlusion pressure may be needed if the history and physical and lab tests do not rule out cardiogenic pulmonary edema.
Bilateral pneumonia
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- A history of fever and cough with or without sputum production.
- Patients may have pleuritic chest discomfort.
Differentiating Tests
- Severe pneumonia with bilateral infiltrates on chest x-ray meets the radiographic criteria for ARDS.
- If patients do not have severe hypoxemia with their pneumonia (PaO₂/FiO₂ ≤300 or SpO₂/FiO₂ ≤315), they do not have ARDS.
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- Onset is usually subacute, over days to weeks.
- Patients are previously healthy, with no related systemic illness.
- Some authors have termed this disease idiopathic ARDS.[41]
Differentiating Tests
- Meets all the clinical criteria for ARDS.
- Best differentiated by history.
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- Associated with bleeding from the small vessels of the airways (capillaritis) and seen in many conditions, ranging from autoimmune to mitral valve diseases.
- Almost always a reversible form of respiratory failure, once the underlying cause is known.
Differentiating Tests
- A syndrome of hypoxia with infiltrates on chest x-ray.
- The hallmark is finding sequentially bloodier aliquots of fluid during serial bronchoalveolar lavage.
- Serologic tests to look for autoimmune diseases may help differentiate it from ARDS.[41]
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- Presents as a mild to severe pneumonia in previously healthy people.
- Patients have an excellent response to intravenous corticosteroids.[49]
Differentiating Tests
- The hallmark of this disease is increased numbers of eosinophils (upward of 50%) on bronchoalveolar lavage.
Hypersensitivity pneumonitis
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- A pneumonitis after inhalation of an organic antigen.
- Patients present with infiltrates and a pneumonia-like syndrome that is clinically indistinguishable from ARDS if severe.
- Differentiated from ARDS by clinical history of an inhalational allergen, usually of avian origin.
- Corticosteroids may be beneficial.[41]
Differentiating Tests
- No differentiating investigations.
Differentiating Signs/Symptoms
- Acute pulmonary edema after removal of an upper airway obstruction, most commonly caused by laryngospasm.
- Causes an acute respiratory failure often requiring mechanical ventilation with varying levels of positive end-expiratory pressure.
- The keys to differentiation are the history of upper airway obstruction, postsurgical development, and the rapid resolution of symptoms.[50]
Differentiating Tests
- No differentiating investigations.
Criteria
- Acute onset (within 1 week of known clinical insult)
- Bilateral opacities on chest x-ray (not explained by effusions, collapse, or nodules)
- Respiratory failure not fully explained by heart failure or fluid overload (objective assessment such as echocardiogram recommended if no risk factor).
- Mild: PaO₂/FiO₂ 200-300 with positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) or continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) ≥5 cm H₂O
- Moderate: PaO₂/FiO₂ 100-200 with PEEP ≥5 cm H₂O
- Severe: PaO₂/FiO₂ ≤100 with PEEP ≥5 cm H₂O.
Treatment Approach
Oxygenation and ventilation
Prone positioning
Conservative intravenous fluid management
Antimicrobials
Supportive care
Refractory hypoxemia
- Neuromuscular paralysis improves ventilator-patient synchrony and often improves oxygenation.
- Intermittent doses of paralytics can be used as effectively as a continuous intravenous infusion. If a patient is on a continuous intravenous infusion of a paralytic, train-of-four monitoring should be used to monitor the muscle fiber twitch response to the drug.
- Although one randomized clinical trial showed a 28-day mortality benefit with use of neuromuscular paralysis with cisatracurium besylate for the first 48 hours in severe ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂ <150), a subsequent study with a similar approach to early neuromuscular blockade in ARDS was stopped early for futility.[105] [106] Given these findings, neuromuscular blockade should be reserved for patients with ARDS and refractory hypoxemia despite low tidal volume ventilation and adequate sedation, particularly if there is still evidence of ventilator-patient dyssynchrony.
- Inhaled prostacyclin is easier to administer than inhaled nitric oxide, and also has the potential to improve oxygenation in ARDS through better ventilation perfusion matching. However, there are currently no published large randomized controlled trials of inhaled prostacyclin; thus, it should be used cautiously and only as a rescue therapy.[110]
- Where available, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) should be considered (in conjunction with low tidal volume mechanical ventilation) in select patients with severe ARDS in whom standard therapies are failing (i.e., patients with profound refractory hypoxemia).[111]
- One multicenter trial showed that patients with severe ARDS randomized to transfer to a tertiary care center for consideration of ECMO (75% [n=68] of whom actually received ECMO) were more likely to survive to 6 months without disability than patients randomized to continued conventional management (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.97, P=0.03).[112] One subsequent randomized multicenter trial (n=249) did not demonstrate significantly lower 60-day mortality in the ECMO treatment group compared with standard care (35% vs. 46%, respectively; P=0.09); however, one meta-analysis pooling data from both trials reported significantly lower 60-day mortality in the venovenous ECMO group compared with the control group (RR 0.73, 95% CI 0.58 to 0.92, P=0.008) despite a moderate risk of major bleeding in the ECMO group.[113] [114]
- HFOV may have a role as a rescue therapy for patients with severe ARDS and refractory hypoxemia because the use of HFOV often improves oxygenation.
Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19)
- Appropriate isolation and infection prevention and control measures.
- Corticosteroids (low-dose intravenous or oral dexamethasone, or an alternative corticosteroid) are strongly recommended for adults with severe or critical COVID-19 disease, including those with ARDS, based on several large randomized clinical trials. The recommended duration of treatment is 7 to 10 days.[121] [122]
- Consider a trial of high-flow nasal oxygen or noninvasive ventilation in selected patients with COVID-19 and mild ARDS. Endotracheal intubation should not be delayed if there is no improvement after a short trial (1 hour).[120]
- Prone positioning for 12 to 16 hours per day is recommended for patients with COVID-19 and severe ARDS.[120] Awake prone positioning can be considered for patients with COVID-19 receiving high-flow nasal oxygen or noninvasive ventilation.[120] [123] Two small case series found that many people tolerated the prone position while awake, breathing spontaneously, or receiving noninvasive ventilation; these patients experienced an improvement in oxygenation and a decrease in respiratory rate.[124] [125]
- There are conflicting recommendations across international guidelines about the use of the antiviral remdesivir in patients with COVID-19. Local guidance and protocols should be consulted. The WHO recommends against the use of remdesivir in hospitalized patients in addition to standard care, regardless of disease severity, based on one systematic review and a network meta-analysis of four randomized trials.[122] However, remdesivir is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of COVID-19 in hospitalized adult and pediatric patients (ages ≥12 years and weighing ≥40 kg), based on data from a large randomized clinical trial that showed improvements in time to recovery with remdesivir treatment. Its use in selected patients is supported by several US guidelines.[126] [127] [128] [129] [123]
Treatment Options
all patients
oxygen and ventilation
Comments
- Although the original low tidal volume trial by the ARDS Network targeted an oxygen saturation between 88% and 95%, two subsequent clinical trials suggest that higher oxygenation targets may be associated with better clinical outcomes.[52] [54] Based on the findings of these studies, it seems prudent to target an oxygen saturation of ≥92%.
- Occasionally patients can be managed with noninvasive ventilation, but the failure rate is high and the majority will require endotracheal intubation.[55] The American Thoracic Society provides guidance on how to facilitate communication with mechanically ventilated patients as a key component of symptom assessment.[56] Data regarding the use of high-flow oxygen via nasal cannula (HFNC) in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure are unclear; the safety and efficacy of HFNC in patients with ARDS has not been studied prospectively.[57] [58]
- A tidal volume of 4-8 mL/kg predicted body weight should be used to maintain an inspiratory plateau pressure <30 cm H₂O with an initial setting of 6 mL/kg.[63] Predicted body weight for men is calculated as 50 + 0.91 × (height [cm] - 152.4), and for women is 45.5 + 0.91 × (height [cm] - 152.4).[59] If the plateau pressure is >30 cm H₂O, then tidal volume should be lowered to 5 mL/kg or as low as 4 mL/kg, if needed.
- Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) and FiO₂ should be titrated using established PEEP titration tables.[59] [64] The available data suggest that higher levels of PEEP are safe and may improve oxygenation in some patients.[63] [65] [66] Mortality is reduced in patients who respond with improved oxygenation.[67]
- Respiratory acidosis, a common complication of low tidal volume ventilation, is treated by increasing the respiratory rate. Although it is not known what level of respiratory acidosis is harmful in patients with ARDS, permissive hypercapnia is often tolerated due to low tidal volume ventilation. However, severe hypercapnia is independently associated with higher intensive care unit mortality.[72] Normocapnia often cannot be achieved (and should not be a goal). Clinical guidelines recommend an arterial pH of 7.30 to 7.45 is maintained, but studies suggest patients who undergo permissive hypercapnia can tolerate a blood pH as low as 7.15. Bicarbonate infusions may be administered when the pH falls below 7.15.
- Selected patients with COVID-19 and mild ARDS can be considered for a trial of high-flow nasal oxygen or noninvasive ventilation. Endotracheal intubation should be not delayed if there is no improvement after a short trial (1 hour).[120]
- See our topic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) for more information on the management of COVID-19.
prone positioning
Comments
- Prone positioning can improve oxygenation in patients with ARDS and has been shown to reduce mortality in patients with severe ARDS (PaO₂/fraction of inspired oxygen [FiO₂] <150).[63] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] One systematic review found that reduced mortality was contingent upon patients remaining prone for at least 12 hours daily.[81] Given the potential complications of prone positioning, including facial edema, pressure sores, and dislodgement of catheters and endotracheal tubes, prone positioning should only be considered in patients with severe ARDS (PaO₂/FiO₂ <150).
- See our topic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) for more information on the management of COVID-19.
intravenous fluids
Comments
- The patient's fluid balance should be maintained as slightly negative or neutral (providing the patient is not in shock). A central line is recommended to measure the central venous pressure (CVP), with regular assessments of fluid status. The goal is to keep the CVP <4 cm H₂O. The routine use of a pulmonary artery catheter (to measure pulmonary artery occlusion pressure) is not recommended as insertion is associated with more complications than a central line.[40]
- A conservative fluid strategy reduced the duration of mechanical ventilation but had no effect on mortality in a large clinical trial in patients with ARDS who were not in shock.[82] Similar results were reported in one systematic review and meta-analysis of adults and children with ARDS, sepsis, or systemic inflammatory response syndrome.[83]
antimicrobials + identification and treatment of source of infection
Comments
- In patients who have an infectious cause for ARDS (e.g., pneumonia or sepsis), the prompt initiation of antimicrobials is important.[94] [95] Empiric antibiotics targeted at the suspected underlying infection should be used as soon as possible after obtaining appropriate cultures including blood, sputum, and urine cultures. Antivirals or antifungals may be appropriate in patients with suspected or confirmed viral or fungal infections. Once culture results are available, the antimicrobial regimen can be tailored for the identified organism. There is no evidence to support the use of antibiotics in patients who have ARDS without infection.
- There are conflicting recommendations across international guidelines about the use of the antiviral remdesivir in patients with COVID-19. Local guidance and protocols should be consulted.
- Patients with COVID-19 should be managed with appropriate isolation and infection prevention and control measures.
- See our topic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) for more information on the management of COVID-19.
supportive care
Comments
- Standard supportive care of critically ill patients includes prevention of deep vein thrombosis, blood glucose control, prophylaxis against stress-induced gastrointestinal bleeding, hemodynamic support to maintain a mean arterial pressure >60 mmHg, and transfusion of packed red blood cells in patients with hemoglobin <7 g/dL.[96] [97] Nutrition should be provided enterally where possible.[98] In one large randomized trial of 1000 patients with ARDS, low-dose enteral feeding for the first 5 days of ARDS had similar clinical outcomes compared with full-calorie feeding.[99] Supplemental nutrition with omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants is not recommended.[100]
- Inhaled or intravenous beta-adrenergic agonists to promote alveolar fluid clearance and resolution of pulmonary edema are not recommended.[101] [102] Neither early nor late administration of corticosteroids has been shown to improve mortality in patients with ARDS, and their routine use is not recommended in patients who do not have COVID-19.[103] [104]
- Corticosteroids (low-dose intravenous or oral dexamethasone or an alternative corticosteroid) are strongly recommended for adults with severe or critical COVID-19 disease, including those with ARDS, based on several large randomized clinical trials. The recommended duration of treatment is 7 to 10 days.[121] [122]
- See our topic Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) for more information on the management of COVID-19.
rescue therapies
Comments
- In patients with refractory hypoxemia despite a fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO₂) of 1.0 and high levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), rescue therapies for oxygenation should be considered.
- Neuromuscular paralysis improves ventilator-patient synchrony and often improves oxygenation. Intermittent doses of paralytics can be used as effectively as a continuous intravenous infusion. If a patient is on a continuous intravenous infusion of a paralytic, train-of-four monitoring should be used to monitor the muscle fiber twitch response to the drug. Given findings from randomized controlled trials, neuromuscular blockade should be reserved for patients with severe ARDS and refractory hypoxemia despite low tidal volume ventilation and adequate sedation, particularly if there is still evidence of ventilator-patient dyssynchrony.[105] [106]
- Inhaled nitric oxide can improve oxygenation in patients with ARDS, but does not improve mortality and has been associated with acute kidney injury.[107] [108] [109] Thus, it should be used only as a rescue therapy for refractory hypoxemia. Inhaled prostacyclin is easier to administer than inhaled nitric oxide, and also has the potential to improve oxygenation in ARDS through better ventilation perfusion matching. However, there are currently no published large randomized controlled trials of inhaled prostacyclin; thus, it should be used cautiously and only as a rescue therapy.[110]
- Where available, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) should be considered (in conjunction with low tidal volume mechanical ventilation) in select patients with severe ARDS in whom standard therapies are failing (i.e., patients with profound refractory hypoxemia).[111] In patients with severe acute ARDS, venovenous ECMO is associated with reduced 60-day mortality compared with conventional mechanical ventilation, despite a moderate risk of major bleeding.[114]
- Routine use of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) in moderate-to-severe ARDS is not beneficial, and may be harmful.[115] [116] [117] [118] [119] However, HFOV may still have a role as a rescue therapy for patients with severe ARDS and refractory hypoxemia, because the use of HFOV often improves oxygenation.
Emerging Tx
Early corticosteroid administration
Follow-Up Overview
Prognosis
Monitoring
Complications
Citations
Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, et al; ARDS Definition Task Force. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA. 2012 Jun 20;307(23):2526-33.[Abstract]
Thompson BT, Chambers RC, Liu KD. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2017 Aug 10;377(6):562-72.[Abstract]
Matthay MA, Ware LB, Zimmerman GA. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2012 Aug;122(8):2731-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
Janz DR, Ware LB. Approach to the patient with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med. 2014 Dec;35(4):685-96.[Abstract][Full Text]
Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC, et al. An Official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017 May 1;195(9):1253-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Clinical Trials Network. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jul 22;351(4):327-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al; PROSEVA Study Group. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun 6;368(23):2159-68.[Abstract]
Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 15;354(24):2564-75.[Abstract]
1. Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, et al; ARDS Definition Task Force. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA. 2012 Jun 20;307(23):2526-33.[Abstract]
2. Frutos-Vivar F, Esteban A. Epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2004 Feb;10(1):1-6.[Abstract]
3. Summers C, Singh NR, Worpole L, et al. Incidence and recognition of acute respiratory distress syndrome in a UK intensive care unit. Thorax. 2016 Nov;71(11):1050-1.[Abstract][Full Text]
4. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2005 Oct 20;353(16):1685-93.[Abstract]
5. MacCullum NS, Evans TW. Epidemiology of acute lung injury. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2005 Feb;11(1):43-9.[Abstract]
6. Li G, Malinchoc M, Cartin-Ceba R, et al. Eight-year trend of acute respiratory distress syndrome: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jan 1;183(1):59-66.[Abstract][Full Text]
7. Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, et al. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2003 Mar;31(3):869-77.[Abstract]
8. Simou E, Leonardi-Bee J, Britton J. The effect of alcohol consumption on the risk of ARDS: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2018 Jul;154(1):58-68.[Abstract][Full Text]
9. Cochi SE, Kempker JA, Annangi S, et al. Mortality trends of acute respiratory distress syndrome in the United States from 1999 to 2013. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2016 Oct;13(10):1742-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
10. Calfee CS, Delucchi K, Parsons PE, et al. Subphenotypes in acute respiratory distress syndrome: latent class analysis of data from two randomised controlled trials. Lancet Respir Med. 2014 Aug;2(8):611-20.[Abstract]
11. Famous KR, Delucchi K, Ware LB, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome subphenotypes respond differently to randomized fluid management strategy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017 Feb 1;195(3):331-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
12. Calfee CS, Delucchi KL, Sinha P, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome subphenotypes and differential response to simvastatin: secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2018 Sep;6(9):691-8.[Abstract]
13. Thompson BT, Chambers RC, Liu KD. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2017 Aug 10;377(6):562-72.[Abstract]
14. Wu C, Chen X, Cai Y, et al. Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Intern Med. 2020 Jul 1;180(7):934-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
15. Matthay MA, Ware LB, Zimmerman GA. The acute respiratory distress syndrome. J Clin Invest. 2012 Aug;122(8):2731-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
16. Mikkelsen ME, Shah CV, Meyer NJ, et al. The epidemiology of acute respiratory distress syndrome in patients presenting to the emergency department with severe sepsis. Shock. 2013 Nov;40(5):375-81.[Abstract][Full Text]
17. Gajic O, Dabbagh O, Park PK, et al; U.S. Critical Illness and Injury Trials Group: Lung Injury Prevention Study Investigators (USCIITG-LIPS). Early identification of patients at risk of acute lung injury: evaluation of lung injury prediction score in a multicenter cohort study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Feb 15;183(4):462-70.[Abstract][Full Text]
18. Pepe PE, Potkin RT, Reus DH, et al. Clinical predictors of the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Surg. 1982 Jul;144(1):124-30.[Abstract]
19. Baumann W, Jung R, Koss M, et al. Incidence and mortality of adult respiratory distress syndrome: a prospective analysis from a large metropolitan hospital. Crit Care Med. 1986 Jan;14(1):1-4.[Abstract]
20. Saguil A, Fargo M. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2012 Feb 15;85(4):352-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
21. Navarrete-Navarro P, Rivera-Fernandez R, Rincon-Ferrari MD, et al. Early markers of acute respiratory distress syndrome development in severe trauma patients. J Crit Care. 2006 Sep;21(3):253-8.[Abstract]
22. Christie JD, Sager JS, Kimmel SE, et al. Impact of primary graft failure on outcomes following lung transplantation. Chest. 2005 Jan;127(1):161-5.[Abstract]
23. Pastor CM, Matthay MA, Frossard JL. Pancreatitis-associated acute lung injury: new insights. Chest. 2003 Dec;124(6):2341-51.[Abstract]
24. Paran H, Mayo, A, Paran D, et al. Octreotide treatment in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. Dig Dis Sci. 2000 Nov;45(11):2247-51.[Abstract]
25. Liffner G, Bak Z, Reske A, et al. Inhalation injury assessed by score does not contribute to the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in burn victims. Burns. 2005 May;31(3):263-8.[Abstract]
26. Szpilman D, Orlowski JP. Sports related to drowning. Eur Respir Rev. 2016 Sep;25(141):348-59.[Abstract][Full Text]
27. Szpilman D, Bierens JJ, Handley AJ, et al. Current concepts: drowning. N Engl J Med. 2012 May 31;366(22):2102-10.[Abstract][Full Text]
28. Cherian SV, Kumar A, Estrada-Y-Martin RM. E-cigarette or vaping-product associated lung injury: a review. Am J Med. 2020 Jun;133(6):657-63.[Abstract]
29. Blount BC, Karwowski MP, Shields PG, et al; Lung Injury Response Laboratory Working Group. Vitamin E acetate in bronchoalveolar-lavage fluid associated with EVALI. N Engl J Med. 2020 Feb 20;382(8):697-705.[Abstract][Full Text]
30. Parsons PE. Respiratory failure as a result of drugs, overdoses, and poisonings. Clin Chest Med. 1994 Mar;15(1):93-102.[Abstract]
31. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Eisner MD, et al. Active and passive cigarette smoking and acute lung injury after severe blunt trauma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Jun 15;183(12):1660-5.[Abstract][Full Text]
32. Calfee CS, Matthay MA, Kangelaris KN, et al. Cigarette smoke exposure and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 2015 Sep;43(9):1790-7.[Abstract]
33. Diamond JM, Lee JC, Kawut SM, et al; Lung Transplant Outcomes Group. Clinical risk factors for primary graft dysfunction after lung transplantation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2013 Mar 1;187(5):527-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
34. Bellani G, Laffey JG, Pham T, et al; LUNG SAFE Investigators; ESICM Trials Group. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA. 2016 Feb 23;315(8):788-800.[Abstract][Full Text]
35. Laffey JG, Misak C, Kavanage BP. Easily missed? Acute respiratory distress syndrome. BMJ 2017 Nov 16;359:j5055.[Abstract]
36. Janz DR, Ware LB. Approach to the patient with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. Clin Chest Med. 2014 Dec;35(4):685-96.[Abstract][Full Text]
37. Leaver SK, Evans TW. Acute respiratory distress syndrome. BMJ. 2007 Aug 25;335(7616):389-94.[Abstract]
38. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al; National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Network. Comparison of the SpO2/FiO2 ratio and the PaO2/FiO2 ratio in patients with acute lung injury or ARDS. Chest. 2007 Aug;132(2):410-7.[Abstract]
39. Chen W, Janz DR, Shaver CM, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes are similar in ARDS diagnosed by oxygen saturation/FiO2 ratio compared with PaO2/FiO2 ratio. Chest. 2015 Dec;148(6):1477-83.[Abstract]
40. National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Network. Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006 May 25;354(21):2213-24.[Abstract]
41. Schwarz MI, Albert RK. "Imitators" of the ARDS: implications for diagnosis and treatment. Chest. 2004 Apr;125(4):1530-5.[Abstract]
42. Wahidi MM, Lamb C, Murgu S, et al. American Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology (AABIP) statement on the use of bronchoscopy and respiratory specimen collection in patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 infection. J Bronchology Interv Pulmonol. 2020 Oct;27(4):e52-54.[Abstract]
43. American Society for Clinical Pathology. Choosing wisely: testing for amylase. Sep 2016 [internet publication].[Full Text]
44. Gattinoni L, Caironi P, Pelosi P, et al. What has computed tomography taught us about the acute respiratory distress syndrome? Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001 Nov 1;164(9):1701-11.[Abstract][Full Text]
45. Papazian L, Thomas P, Bregeon F, et al. Open-lung biopsy in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Anesthesiology. 1998 Apr;88(4):935-44.[Abstract][Full Text]
46. Patel SR, Karmpaliotis D, Ayas NT, et al. The role of open-lung biopsy in ARDS. Chest. 2004 Jan;125(1):197-202.[Abstract]
47. Rompianesi G, Hann A, Komolafe O, et al. Serum amylase and lipase and urinary trypsinogen and amylase for diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Apr 21;(4):CD012010.[Abstract][Full Text]
48. Sinha P, Calfee CS, Cherian S, et al. Prevalence of phenotypes of acute respiratory distress syndrome in critically ill patients with COVID-19: a prospective observational study. Lancet Respir Med. 2020 Dec;8(12):1209-18.[Abstract][Full Text]
49. Pope-Harman AL, Davis WB, Allen ED, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia. A summary of 15 cases and review of the literature. Medicine (Baltimore). 1996 Nov;75(6):334-42.[Abstract]
50. Kallet RH, Daniel BM, Gropper M, et al. Acute pulmonary edema following upper airway obstruction: case reports and brief review. Respir Care. 1998 Jun;43(6):476-80.[Full Text]
51. Fan E, Brodie D, Slutsky AS. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA. 2018 Feb 20;319(7):698-710.[Abstract]
52. Barrot L, Asfar P, Mauny F, et al; LOCO2 Investigators and REVA Research Network. Liberal or conservative oxygen therapy for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2020 Mar 12;382(11):999-1008.[Abstract]
53. Cumpstey AF, Oldman AH, Smith AF, et al. Oxygen targets in the intensive care unit during mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a rapid review. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020 Sep 1;(9):CD013708.[Abstract]
54. Mackle D, Bellomo R, et al; ICU-ROX Investigators and the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group. Conservative oxygen therapy during mechanical ventilation in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2020 Mar 12;382(11):989-98.[Abstract]
55. Agarwal R, Aggarwal AN, Gupta D. Role of noninvasive ventilation in acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome: a proportion meta-analysis. Respir Care. 2010 Dec;55(12):1653-60.[Abstract]
56. Guttormson JL, Khan B, Brodsky MB, et al. Symptom assessment for mechanically ventilated patients: principles and priorities: an official American Thoracic Society workshop report. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2023 Apr;20(4):491-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
57. Leeies M, Flynn E, Turgeon AF, et al. High-flow oxygen via nasal cannulae in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Syst Rev. 2017 Oct 16;6(1):202.[Abstract][Full Text]
58. Lewis SR, Baker PE, Parker R, et al. High-flow nasal cannulae for respiratory support in adult intensive care patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021 Mar 4;(3):CD010172.[Abstract][Full Text]
59. Brower RG, Matthay MA, Morris A, et al; Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000 May 4;342(18):1301-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
60. Putensen C, Theuerkauf N, Zinserling J, et al. Meta-analysis: ventilation strategies and outcomes of the acute respiratory distress syndrome and acute lung injury. Ann Intern Med. 2009 Oct 20;151(8):566-76.[Abstract]
61. Walkey AJ, Goligher EC, Del Sorbo L, et al. Low tidal volume versus non-volume-limited strategies for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017 Oct;14(suppl 4):S271-9.[Abstract][Full Text]
62. American College of Emergency Physicians. Policy statement: mechanical ventilation. Oct 2017 [internet publication].[Full Text]
63. Fan E, Del Sorbo L, Goligher EC, et al. An Official American Thoracic Society/European Society of Intensive Care Medicine/Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guideline: mechanical ventilation in adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017 May 1;195(9):1253-63.[Abstract][Full Text]
64. Brower RG, Lanken PN, MacIntyre N, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Clinical Trials Network. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2004 Jul 22;351(4):327-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
65. Meade MO, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, et al. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008 Feb 13;299(6):637-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
66. Mercat A, Richard JC, Vielle B, et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008 Feb 13;299(6):646-55.[Abstract][Full Text]
67. Guo L, Xie J, Huang Y, et al. Higher PEEP improves outcomes in ARDS patients with clinically objective positive oxygenation response to PEEP: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Anesthesiol. 2018 Nov 17;18(1):172.[Abstract][Full Text]
68. Kasenda B, Sauerbrei W, Royston P, et al. Multivariable fractional polynomial interaction to investigate continuous effect modifiers in a meta-analysis on higher versus lower PEEP for patients with ARDS. BMJ Open. 2016 Sep 8;6(9):e011148.[Abstract][Full Text]
69. Cavalcanti AB, Suzumura ÉA, Laranjeira LN, et al; Writing Group for the Alveolar Recruitment for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Trial (ART) Investigators. Effect of lung recruitment and titrated positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) vs low PEEP on mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2017 Oct 10;318(14):1335-45.[Abstract][Full Text]
70. Constantin JM, Jabaudon M, Lefrant JY, et al; AZUREA Network. Personalised mechanical ventilation tailored to lung morphology versus low positive end-expiratory pressure for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in France (the LIVE study): a multicentre, single-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2019 Oct;7(10):870-80.[Abstract]
71. Kang H, Yang H, Tong Z. Recruitment manoeuvres for adults with acute respiratory distress syndrome receiving mechanical ventilation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2019 Apr;50:1-10.[Abstract]
72. Nin N, Muriel A, Peñuelas O, et al; VENTILA Group. Severe hypercapnia and outcome of mechanically ventilated patients with moderate or severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Feb;43(2):200-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
73. Soar J, Böttiger BW, Carli P, et al. European Resuscitation Council guidelines 2021: adult advanced life support. Resuscitation. 2021 Apr;161:115-51.[Abstract][Full Text]
74. Colquhoun MC, Handley AJ, Evans TR. ABC of resuscitation. 5th ed. London: BMJ Publishing Group; 2004.
75. Chrimes N, Higgs A, Hagberg CA, et al. Preventing unrecognised oesophageal intubation: a consensus guideline from the Project for Universal Management of Airways and international airway societies. Anaesthesia. 2022 Dec;77(12):1395-415. [Abstract][Full Text]
76. Sud S, Friedrich JO, Taccone P, et al. Prone ventilation reduces mortality in patients with acute respiratory failure and severe hypoxemia: systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2010 Apr;36(4):585-99.[Abstract]
77. Abroug F, Ouanes-Besbes L, Dachraoui F, et al. An updated study-level meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on proning in ARDS and acute lung injury. Crit Care. 2011;15(1):R6.[Abstract][Full Text]
78. Bloomfield R, Noble DW, Sudlow A. Prone position for acute respiratory failure in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015 Nov 13;(11):CD008095.[Abstract][Full Text]
79. Guérin C, Reignier J, Richard JC, et al; PROSEVA Study Group. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun 6;368(23):2159-68.[Abstract]
80. Beitler JR, Shaefi S, Montesi SB, et al. Prone positioning reduces mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome in the low tidal volume era: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2014 Mar;40(3):332-41.[Abstract]
81. Munshi L, Del Sorbo L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Prone position for acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017 Oct;14(suppl 4):S280-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
82. Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med. 2006 Jun 15;354(24):2564-75.[Abstract]
83. Silversides JA, Major E, Ferguson AJ, et al. Conservative fluid management or deresuscitation for patients with sepsis or acute respiratory distress syndrome following the resuscitation phase of critical illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2017 Feb;43(2):155-70.[Abstract]
84. Kusminsky RE. Complications of central venous catheterization. J Am Coll Surg. 2007 Apr;204(4):681-96.[Abstract]
85. McGee DC, Gould MK. Preventing complications of central venous catheterization. N Engl J Med. 2003 Mar 20;348(12):1123-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
86. Smith RN, Nolan JP. Central venous catheters. BMJ. 2013 Nov 11;347:f6570.[Abstract][Full Text]
87. Reich DL. Monitoring in anesthesia and perioperative care. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
88. Abbott Northwestern Hospital Internal Medicine Residency. Internal jugular central venous line. 2022 [internet publication].[Full Text]
89. Bishop L, Dougherty L, Bodenham A, et al. Guidelines on the insertion and management of central venous access devices in adults. Int J Lab Hematol. 2007 Aug;29(4):261-78.[Abstract]
90. Practice guidelines for central venous access 2020: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Central Venous Access. Anesthesiology. 2020 Jan;132(1):8-43.[Abstract][Full Text]
91. Fletcher SJ, Bodenham AR. Safe placement of central venous catheters: where should the tip of the catheter lie? Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):188-91.[Abstract]
92. Gibson F, Bodenham A. Misplaced central venous catheters: applied anatomy and practical management. Br J Anaesth. 2013 Mar;110(3):333-46.[Abstract][Full Text]
93. Schuster M, Nave H, Piepenbrock S, et al. The carina as a landmark in central venous catheter placement. Br J Anaesth. 2000 Aug;85(2):192-4.[Abstract]
94. Metlay JP, Waterer GW, Long AC, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with community-acquired pneumonia. An official clinical practice guideline of the American Thoracic Society and Infectious Diseases Society of America. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Oct 1;200(7):e45-67.[Abstract][Full Text]
95. Kalil AC, Metersky ML, Klompas M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis. 2016 Sep 1;63(5):e61-111.[Abstract][Full Text]
96. Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon JY, et al; Prophylaxis in Medical Patients with Enoxaparin Study Group. A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 9;341(11):793-800.[Abstract][Full Text]
97. Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, et al; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 1998 Mar 19;338(12):791-7.[Abstract][Full Text]
98. Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Early enteral nutrition in acutely ill patients: a systematic review. Crit Care Med. 2001 Dec;29(12):2264-70.[Abstract]
99. Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: the EDEN randomized trial. JAMA. 2012 Feb 22;307(8):795-803.[Abstract][Full Text]
100. Dushianthan A, Cusack R, Burgess VA, et al. Immunonutrition for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019 Jan 24;(1):CD012041.[Abstract][Full Text]
101. Matthay MA, Brower RG, Carson S, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of an aerosolized beta2-agonist for treatment of acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011 Sep 1;184(5):561-8.[Abstract][Full Text]
102. Gao Smith F, Perkins GD, Gates S, et al; BALTI-2 study investigators. Effect of intravenous beta-2 agonist treatment on clinical outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome (BALTI-2): a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2012 Jan 21;379(9812):229-35.[Abstract][Full Text]
103. Bernard GR, Luce JM, Sprung CL. High-dose corticosteroids in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1987 Dec 17;317(25):1565-70.[Abstract]
104. Steinberg KP, Hudson LD, Goodman RB, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network. Efficacy and safety of corticosteroids for persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2006 Apr 20;354(16):1671-84.[Abstract]
105. Papazian L, Forel JM, Gacouin A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2010 Sep 16;363(12):1107-16.[Abstract]
106. Moss M, Huang DT, Brower RG, et al; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute PETAL Clinical Trials Network. Early neuromuscular blockade in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2019 May 23;380(21):1997-2008.[Abstract][Full Text]
107. Taylor RW, Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP, et al; Inhaled Nitric Oxide in ARDS Study Group. Low-dose inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute lung injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004 Apr 7;291(13):1603-9.[Abstract]
108. Adhikari NK, Burns KE, Friedrich JO, et al. Effect of nitric oxide on oxygenation and mortality in acute lung injury: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007 Apr 14;334(7597):779.[Abstract][Full Text]
109. Gebistorf F, Karam O, Wetterslev J, et al. Inhaled nitric oxide for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Jun 27;(6):CD002787.[Abstract][Full Text]
110. Afshari A, Bastholm Bille A, Allingstrup M. Aerosolized prostacyclins for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017 Jul 24;(7):CD007733.[Abstract][Full Text]
111. Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine; Intensive Care Society. Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Jul 2018 [internet publication].[Full Text]
112. Peek GJ, Mugford M, Tiruvoipati R, et al; CESAR Trial Collaboration. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009 Oct 17;374(9698):1351-63.[Abstract]
113. Combes A, Hajage D, Capellier G, et al; EOLIA Trial Group, REVA, and ECMONet. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2018 May 24;378(21):1965-75.[Abstract][Full Text]
114. Munshi L, Walkey A, Goligher E, et al. Venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for acute respiratory distress syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Respir Med. 2019 Feb;7(2):163-72.[Abstract]
115. Young D, Lamb SE, Shah S, et al; OSCAR Study Group. High-frequency oscillation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 28;368(9):806-13.[Abstract]
116. Sud S, Sud M, Friedrich JO, et al. High-frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional ventilation for acute respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016 Apr 4;(4):CD004085.[Abstract][Full Text]
117. Goligher EC, Munshi L, Adhikari NKJ, et al. High-frequency oscillation for adult patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017 Oct;14(suppl 4):S289-96.[Abstract][Full Text]
118. Ferguson ND, Cook DJ, Guyatt GH, et al; OSCILLATE Trial Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. High-frequency oscillation in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2013 Feb 28;368(9):795-805.[Abstract]
119. Meade MO, Young D, Hanna S, et al. Severity of hypoxemia and effect of high-frequency oscillatory ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017 Sep 15;196(6):727-33.[Abstract][Full Text]
120. World Health Organization. COVID-19 clinical management: living guidance. January 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
121. WHO Rapid Evidence Appraisal for COVID-19 Therapies (REACT) Working Group, Sterne JAC, Murthy S, et al. Association between administration of systemic corticosteroids and mortality among critically ill patients with COVID-19: A Meta-analysis. JAMA. 2020 Oct 6;324(13):1330-41.[Abstract][Full Text]
122. Rochwerg B, Siemieniuk RA, Agoritsas T, et al. A living WHO guideline on drugs for Covid-19. BMJ. 2020 Sep 4;370:m3379.[Abstract][Full Text]
123. Alhazzani W, Evans L, Alshamsi F, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines on the management of adults with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the ICU: first update. Crit Care Med. 2021 Mar 1;49(3):e219-34.[Abstract][Full Text]
124. Sartini C, Tresoldi M, Scarpellini P, et al. Respiratory parameters in patients with COVID-19 after using noninvasive ventilation in the prone position outside the intensive care unit. JAMA. 2020 Jun 9;323(22):2338-40.[Abstract][Full Text]
125. Elharrar X, Trigui Y, Dols AM, et al. Use of prone positioning in nonintubated patients with COVID-19 and hypoxemic acute respiratory failure. JAMA. 2020 Jun 9;323(22):2336-38.[Abstract][Full Text]
126. Beigel JH, Tomashek KM, Dodd LE, et al. Remdesivir for the treatment of Covid-19: final report. N Engl J Med. 2020 Nov 5;383(19):1813-26.[Abstract][Full Text]
127. National Institutes of Health. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) treatment guidelines. 2021 [internet publication].[Full Text]
128. Bhimraj A, Morgan RL, Shumaker AH, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines on the treatment and management of patients with COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020 Apr 27;ciaa478.[Abstract][Full Text]
129. Qaseem A, Yost J, Etxeandia-Ikobaltzeta I, et al. Should remdesivir be used for the treatment of patients with COVID-19? Rapid, living practice points from the American College of Physicians (version 1). Ann Intern Med. 2021 Feb;174(2):229-36.[Abstract][Full Text]
130. Villar J, Ferrando C, Martínez D, et al; dexamethasone in ARDS network. Dexamethasone treatment for the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Respir Med. 2020 Mar;8(3):267-76.[Abstract]
131. Máca J, Jor O, Holub M, et al. Past and present ARDS mortality rates: a systematic review. Respir Care. 2017 Jan;62(1):113-22.[Abstract][Full Text]
132. Montgomery AB, Stager MA, Carrico CJ, et al. Causes of mortality in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1985 Sep;132(3):485-9.[Abstract]
133. Ely EW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Recovery rate and prognosis in older persons who develop acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Ann Intern Med. 2002 Jan 1;136(1):25-36.[Abstract]
134. Neff TA, Stocker R, Frey HR. Long-term assessment of lung function in survivors of severe ARDS. Chest. 2003 Mar;123(3):845-53.[Abstract]
135. Orme J, Romney JS, Hopkins RO, et al. Pulmonary function and health-related quality of life in survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003 Mar 1;167(5):690-4.[Abstract]
136. Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003 Feb 20;348(8):683-93.[Abstract][Full Text]
137. Eisner MD, Thompson BT, Schoenfeld D, et al. Airway pressures and early barotrauma in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Apr 1;165(7):978-82.[Abstract]
Key Articles
Referenced Articles
Guidelines
Treatment
Summary
Provides information on communication and symptom assessment in mechanically ventilated patients.Published by
American Thoracic Society
Published
2023
Summary
Evidence-based guidelines on the use of mechanical ventilation in adult patients with ARDS.Published by
American Thoracic Society; European Society of Intensive Care Medicine; Society of Critical Care Medicine
Published
2017
Summary
An evidence-based framework for the management of adult patients with ARDS.Published by
The Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine; Intensive Care Society
Published
2018